Daredevil writer Gerry Conway recounted, "It was my idea to team up Daredevil and the Black Widow, mainly because I was a fan of Natasha, and thought she and Daredevil would have interesting chemistry. Throughout the s and s, the Black Widow appeared frequently as both an Avengers member and a freelance agent of S. She starred in a serialized feature within the omnibus comic-book series Marvel Fanfare 10—13 Aug. These stories were later collected in the oversized one-shot Black Widow: Web of Intrigue 1 June She had made frequent guest appearances in Daredevil since the late s.
A new ongoing Black Widow comic title debuted in April Black Widow appeared as a regular character throughout the — Secret Avengers series, from issue 1 July through its final issue 37 March The first issue debuted in Jan.
Aside from the arcs in Marvel Fanfare and Journey into Mystery, the Black Widow has starred in four limited series and four graphic novels. The three-issue Black Widow June-Aug. Grayson while J. Jones was the artist. Romanova next starred in another solo miniseries titled Black Widow: Homecoming Nov. In , the year in which the character, called only Natasha Romanoff , made her film debut in Iron Man 2 , the Black Widow received two separate miniseries.
Black Widow and the Marvel Girls was an all-ages, four-issue series that chronicled her adventures with various women of the Marvel Universe, including Storm , She-Hulk , the Enchantress , and Spider-Woman.
The first and best-known Black Widow is a Russian agent trained as a spy, martial artist, and sniper, and outfitted with an arsenal of high-tech weaponry, including a pair of wrist-mounted energy weapons dubbed her "Widow's Bite". She wears no costume during her first few appearances but simply evening wear and a veil.
Romanova eventually defects to the U. The first hints to Natasha Romanova's childhood come from Ivan Petrovich, who is introduced as her middle-aged chauffeur and confidant in the Black Widow's s Amazing Adventures. Petrovich tells Matt Murdock that he had been given custody of little Natasha by a woman who died immediately afterwards, during the Battle of Stalingrad in autumn He consequently felt committed to raise the orphan as a surrogate father and she eventually trained as a Soviet spy, being eager to help her homeland.
A revised, retconned origin establishes her as being raised from very early childhood by the U. There, she is biotechnologically and psycho-technologically enhanced—which provides a rationale for her unusually long and youthful lifespan. During that time she had some training under the Winter Soldier , and the pair even had a short romance. Romanova eventually discovers this, including the fact that she had never, as she had believed, been a ballerina. She further discovers that the Red Room is still active as "2R".
However, when the Soviet government decided to make Shostakov into their new operative, the Red Guardian, he is told that he can have no further contact with his wife. Natasha is told that he died and is trained as a secret agent separately. Romanova grew up to serve as a femme fatale.
She was assigned to assist Boris Turgenov in the assassination of Professor Anton Vanko for defecting from the Soviet Union, which served as her first mission in the United States. Natasha and Turgenov infiltrated Stark Industries as part of the plan.
Vanko sacrificed himself to save Iron Man, killing Turgenov in the process, using an unstable experimental laser light pistol. Later, Natasha again attempted to get Hawkeye to help her destroy Iron Man. The pair almost succeeded, but when Black Widow was injured, Hawkeye retreated to get her to safety.
When her employers learned the truth, the KGB had her gunned down, sending her to a hospital, convincing Hawkeye to go straight and seek membership in the Avengers. The Red Room kidnapped and brainwashed her again, and with the Swordsman and the first Power Man , she battled the Avengers. She ultimately joins the Avengers as a costumed hero herself. Upon Nick Fury's request, she begins freelancing as an agent of the international espionage group S.
She is sent on a secret S. There, with the Avengers, she battles Col. Ling, Gen. Brushov, and her ex-husband the Red Guardian. She helps young Puerto Ricans clean up police corruption and saves young hippies from organized crime.
She investigates a plot by Egghead, the Puppet Master and the Mad Thinker to blackmail the US government using a laser-firing satellite. During her romantic involvement with Matt Murdock in San Francisco, she operates as an independent superhero alongside Murdock's alter ego, Daredevil. Eventually, her relationship with Murdock stagnates, and after briefly working with Avengers finally breaks up with Murdock, fearing that playing " sidekick " is sublimating her identity.
After their breakup, the Widow moves to Los Angeles and becomes leader of the newly created and short-lived super team known as The Champions, consisting of her, Ghost Rider Johnny Blaze , Hercules with whom she has a brief romance , and former X-Men Angel and Iceman.
Her friends usually call her "Natasha", the informal version of "Natalia". She has sometimes chosen the last-name alias "Romanoff". Natasha crosses Daredevil's Matt Murdock path again when he attempts to slay an infant he believes to be the Anti-Christ while under the influence of mind-altering drugs.
After Daredevil's one-time love, Karen Page , dies protecting the child, Natasha reconciles with Murdock, revealing she still loves him, but noting that he is too full of anger to commit to a relationship with her. Natasha is challenged by Yelena Belova, a graduate from the training program through which Natasha herself was taught the espionage trade, who is the first to ever surpass Natasha's marks and considers herself the rightful successor to the "Black Widow" mantle.
Although Matt Murdock is appalled by the cruelty of Natasha's treatment of Yelena, Nick Fury describes the action as Natasha's attempt at saving Yelena's life. Shortly after the Scarlet Witch's insanity seemingly killed Hawkeye and again disbanded the Avengers, Natasha, weary of espionage and adventure, travelled to Arizona but was targeted.
Natasha finds and kills the mastermind of the Black Widow murders: Ian McMasters, Gynacon's aging CEO, who intended to use part of their genetic structure to create a new chemical weapon. Later, Tony Stark assigns Natasha to convey the late Captain America 's shield to a secure location, but is intercepted by her former lover, Bucky Barnes , the Winter Soldier, who steals the shield. Helicarrier , where Stark convinces Bucky to become the new Captain America. Afterward, Natasha accompanies Bucky as his partner for a brief time until she is called back by S.
She and Bucky have restarted their relationship. However, due to her respect of the Greek god, she let him go. Norman Osborn discovered Yelena Belova breaking into an abandoned S. A conversation with the Ghost implies that Yelena is working as a mole for someone else and that she may even be someone else disguised as Yelena. She is later seen talking privately through a comm-link to Nick Fury. Osborn orders Yelena to lead the current Thunderbolts to kill former Thunderbolt, Songbird.
Fury orders "Yelena" to rescue and retrieve Songbird for the information she might possess about Osborn and his operations. Yelena finds Songbird and reveals to her that she was really Natasha Romanova in disguise. She and Songbird are brought to be executed but manage to escape when Ant-Man, Headsmen, and Paladin turn on the rest of the Thunderbolts and let them go. She travels to Dubai with her new teammate, Valkyrie , where they steal a dangerous artifact which the Beast then studies, noting that it seems like a distant cousin of the Serpent Crown.
During the " Fear Itself " storyline, Black Widow and Peregrine are sent on a mission to free hostages being held in a Marseille cathedral by Rapido. He and a group of mercenaries are trying to exploit the panic over the events in Paris to steal France's nuclear arsenal. During the " Ends of the Earth " storyline involving one of Doctor Octopus ' schemes, Natasha is one of only three heroes left standing after the defeat of the Avengers by the Sinister Six , [59] joining Silver Sable and Spider-Man to track the Six albeit because she was closest to Sable's cloaked ship after the Avengers were defeated rather than for her prowess.
During the incursion event between Earth and Earth , Natasha is involved in the final battle between the Marvel Universe's superheroes and the Ultimate Universe's Children of Tomorrow. She pilots a ship holding a handpicked few to restart humanity after the universe ends, copiloted by Jessica Drew. Her ship is shot down during the battle though, and she is killed in the ensuing explosion.
As the evacuation of Earth begins in light of the fact that Earth is about to come crashing down as part of the "Last Days" storyline, Black Widow is seen standing atop a building with Captain America who gives her a list of people to save and bring aboard the lifeboat.
As she tells Sam she cannot save them all, Sam explains it's Natasha's job to assist in the effort to save as many people as possible before Earth as they know it is destroyed.
As she leaves, her mind transitions to Cold War Russia, where a young Natasha here called Natalia speaks with two Russian functionaries in the infamous "Red Room". She is told to rendezvous with another agent, her classmate Marina, and befriend the family under the guise of a Russian businesswoman. Natasha assures them of her competency and leaves. When one of the officers questions her youth, the other assures him, "she's a killer.
She will not disappoint. Using her talent for deception, she casually and politely convinces the husband and wife that she's seeking inside information to help her import various goods into the country. The Comienzas explain they cannot reveal said information, prompting Natasha to later explain to Marina that the family might need "a little push".
Not too soon she effectively began terrorizing the family into desperation. First, she plants an American flag on their doorstep to mimic someone accusing them of defecting to the United States. Later after meeting with one of the Russian officers from the Red Room to report her progress, she detonated a car bomb outside their home when the first attempt did not make them "nearly desperate enough".
Following the car bomb explosion, Natasha declares the family is indeed desperate enough to reproach for information. Before letting Natasha go, the officer announces she has one additional task before her mission is over: Marina has become too much enamored with her civilian guise, and is now a security risk.
Natasha will have to eliminate her. Natasha and her then Red Room partner Marina are trying to help a family defect. Natasha's orders are simple: Kill the parents and make it public. When Natasha asks if she should kill the child too, her boss looks horrified that she would be so OK with that and tells her no. Having no problem following orders she sets up a meet and using a sniper rifle she takes out the pair without blinking.
Next she shoots Marina's boyfriend then Marina herself. Next she shoots Marina's cat. Flipping back to the present, Black Widow is back saving people from the incursion as the reason that triggered Natasha's flashback is revealed This dark, heartless side of the Black Widow shows why she is trying so hard to do good today. During the " Secret Empire " storyline, Black Widow appears as a member of the underground resistance at the time when most of the United States has been taken over by Hydra and Captain America who was brainwashed by Red Skull's clone using the powers of the sentient Cosmic Cube Kobik into believing that he was a Hydra sleeper agent.
Honorary Professor at UCT. His primary research interests are C-type lectin receptors and their role in homeostasis and immunity, with a particular focus on antifungal immunity. His research interests revolve around investigating immune regulation and dysregulation in the context of HIV infection or exposure. He focuses on Immune ontogeny in HIV exposed infants, placental investigations and pre-term birth, and epithelial immunity in the foreskin.
Her Research Unit is involved with clinical research, epidemiology and operational research, and is a treatment site for HIV infected adults and children. And people connect with Katniss because she is the heroine. She has managed to outsmart the system. Instead of thinking that she was not even supposed be there in the first place.
Because we live in society that does this to their children. And instead of working on yourself, how to achieve your inner peace, you associate yourself again with the group because it feels better to be in the tortured crowd, instead of being alone and awakened.
It is just emo gibberish. Leave Katniss alone. And in the end, it is just a book. The system as it is, the plot of this book is just another evidence to show us how we are controlled. That we are left barren from our true selves which we only find in empathy, love towards each other and genuinely understanding that we are one and everything is one. And the only reason I am writing this review here, the only reason I am giving it so much attention is to tell what is on my mind since it is so widely popular and since I have read it.
As if having money is any critieria for life, as if not having your own free will and education and information means nothing. And the other side of the rich coin is poverty with people who believe in symbols, who are sidetracked with religions, censured TV, economy and utter lack of information circulation.
And a lot of people here are trying to disregard this review and want to reassure me that I am so terribly wrong. So I followed as well screaming Goodreads recommendations and I bought a book that is stupid, violent and written so plainly but of course written for vast masses so they can be touched by fake social awareness.
And this is my silver lining. Because it has been like this throughout centuries and with the biggest thinkers of our civilisation. What they meant and wanted to show, is definitely not what most of the public projected.
It is just a constant reminder how so many things are left unrecognised while these superficial stories which evoke cheap emotions are always so hugely praised. It could have been just a little story but never underestimate the obese octopus that is called In God And Country We Trust - code red mentality.
Mentality of humans which are too ignorant, beautifully naive and untouched basically with what is means to be socially aware. And although this is a teen book, it is more deeply hurting and sickening because if you want to influence somebody, of course you will influence the children — and yet there is nothing that children can learn from it.
They can learn some things, we all need little courageous Katniss, but on a deeper subtler level is it just an intravenous injection of more Nothing and more Numbing and more Disconnected. At least they read is one of the arguments. And argument as fruitfull as at least they eat GMO food. One food for the blind intellect, other for the digestion which both results in basic survival without any interference of you in all of it.
Because it takes courage and guts and a pinch of anarchy to stop, turn around and start questioning what is handed. For me, the thought about giving this to a child is sickening especially because we live in this world where all the life criterias are upside down. Because if it is served somebody is earning money and you are just getting fatter and sicker.
And the children will learn how to question if you teach them how to find not if you broadcast them the answers. Not if you teach them through aggressive examples and if you keep the nation in cold sweat especially if you are lucky enough to live in the countries where oppression is not the issue but consumerism, body image and mediocrity have you on the leash.
I am astonished with a fact that around What is it that fascinates them so much. And it's about a girl Katniss Everdeen, living in the far away future, who was chosen to participate in a cruel Big Brother game, in which 24 contestants children age kill each other, because live TV has become demanding, and the public loves reality blood and violence.
That's it. A little bit of undeveloped and unbelievable romance between her and two boys, a little bit of her abandoned family problems, a little bit of The 5th element movie political structure, mutants and pop stylists. In the beginning, first 50 pages were well written. There was suspense, Katniss was sweet and witty, but overall this book is a shitty meltdown. Adding the ridiculous cliffhanger ending.
Some people here are using words like dystopian literature, and then write essays about how this book is the core of it. The core is pointlessly graphic and sadistic, without any concrete message except of the negative: this book is just proving that the world today is fucked up if this book is so successful. In a metaphorical way it is promoting political establishments of certain countries and that is getting tiring.
Not all people are eager to swallow the shit of general brainwashing. Katniss being the heroine ironical quote marks. Being loyal and darling and a role model. Just wake up. Life is happening and some pretty dark things are happening while you are thinking that Katniss is the representative of the club called liberation.
For me, in a bookish way it stands for one bad one night stand, kiss and forget. But as always, readers tend to bring fiction to their real life and just as many think that kittens and superheroes are comfort zones, a lot of readers perceive this plot as their own little shrine. But that is me not being in tune with the mainstream population which is too distracted with billboards. Because it is easier, because why protest, why not simply take what you are given - eat your GMO Monsanto's company hamburgers, eat your cancer giving Nestle products and think that The Hunger Games are the best franchise ever, like ever.
This shit sells. It's genuinely bad but excellently targeted. You know, it evokes pride and loyalty and massacring children, freedom and scandal and Hollywood.
It goes very well with all the Kardashian filth. As long as it sells, sells, sells. And marketing agencies know that people are united when they are jealous, when they want and they with those hamburgers want freedom.
Nobody is going to kill their Katniss in a goddam book! Take a look around you. And then the punch line for this book comes from the so called activism from the shopping mall. People who devour literature of this kind and think that everything is all right while in the same time, fuck, you are getting oozingly fat. Bottom line. This book is very shallow and MTV culture oriented, like a classical example of easy consummated pop-literature; I'm very surprised that it didn't come with some trash magazine subscription.
If it doesn't have savage brutality, prize money and prefix ''media coverage'' then it won't be appealing and educational because surely this is how children of 21st century survive this techno media world; through examples of true moral issues and realistic outcomes. Have another gulp of Coca-Cola along the way while you listen to dubstep shit. It saddens me when a violent hillbillish book is so popular.
What is there to truly identify yourself with. Except if your chicken soup for soul are basic emotions which come with buy 1 get 1 free. PLOT It's a potentially exciting but gruesome story, but most of the characters were rather flat, much of the plot was predictable it's not hugely original; in particular, it is VERY similar to the Japanese "Battle Royale" , and there were too many flaws in the plot.
I fail to understand its very high ratings. Post-apocalyptic America Panem is divided into a wealthy and technologically advanced Capitol and twelve subsidiary districts of oppressed people who exist in dire poverty, with inadequate food, housing, and health care and hardly any technology. To reinforce the power of the Capitol by instilling fear in the population, once a year, two children from each region are selected by lots to fight to the death in a reality show. If that were not bad enough, the whole thing is utterly corrupt in multiple ways, plus the public bet on the outcome, and sponsors can sway the results.
Did I mention these are children? Some are as young as 12, though the narrator is A compulsory full-body wax on a teen seems rather pervy and who would want to bet on, let alone sponsor a child-killing tournament, even if it's by helping one of the contestants? As the book keeps reminding readers, one person's survival is only possible by the death of all the others.
CRUELTY TO CHILDREN I realise that horrendous things are done to children around the world every day extreme poverty, child soldiers, sexual assault, genital mutilation etc , but in none of those cases is the sole intention that all but one child dies, and nor is it organised by the government for a sick combination of sport, entertainment, punishment and profit. Humans often lack compassion, but I was never convinced by Collins' world - especially the fact this outrage has continued for three generations it's the 74th games , apparently without the Capitol even needing to invoke gods or supernatural powers to justify their cruelty!
Could a barbaric annual tournament really be such a powerful incentive not to rise up in all that time? I don't think so. BIG ISSUES Nevertheless, it tackles some big themes that are particularly pertinent to teens: the nature of friendship; divided loyalties; the difference between love and friendship; who to trust; whether the ends justify the means; the need to repay favours; the danger of power, wealth and celebrity; the corrupting influence of reality TV; the need for independence, and whether you can trust a parent who abandons you.
It all feels rather laboured to me, but it might not if I were a teen, which only reinforces my puzzlement at the number of adults who have enjoyed it. I must be missing something. I predicted the main plot twist less than a quarter of the way in and the fact that Katniss is telling the story limits the possible outcomes , but the suspense was broken when it was made explicit way before the end. There are some other twists between then and the final page, but by then I was rather annoyed with the whole thing.
I suppose they had become inured to it, but on the other hand, that meant they knew the horror of it. I just didn't believe there was as little fear in them as there appeared to be - given that they are children. It can only be a tiny part of the USA because each district specialises in only one thing coal mining, agriculture etc and has just one town square that can accommodate everyone 8, people in District 12 and yet it's a day's train journey from District 12 to the Capitol.
It doesn't seem like a very plausible settlement pattern in a post-disaster world, even given the totalitarian regime concentrating people in a few centres makes it easier to observe and perhaps control them, but it also creates more opportunities for opposition movements to develop.
It is even possible that they could all survive. The second point is what makes LotF a better book, in my opinion. Of course, there are other, more obvious, parallels with extreme "reality" shows such as "Survivor" and "I'm a Celebrity, get me out of here", but the fundamental differences are not just that contestants in those shows do not fear for their lives, but that they are adults who have chosen to enter.
Any fans who read this will now hate me. I wanted to enjoy this book, and I read it all the way through, making notes as usual, but to no avail.
Shelves: classic-young-adult , girls-rule , young-adult , utopia-dystopia , reviewed , chosen-girls. It is beautiful for the unflinching way it shows you, as a reader, your own willingness to disregard people who are different from you - how you are the Capitol audience. But, it is important as a story about girls.
I had not initially thought about articulating that point because it seemed so obvious to me, and I am bad at recognizing my own assumptions. Lately, though, I have seen so many people, both men and women, acting as though this remarkable book is a piece of fluff that I realized maybe what I love most about The Hunger Games is not as obvious as it seems. To me, this series is important because it is a landmark departure from the traditional story about girls.
Too often, stories objectify women. When I say stories objectify girls, I mean they talk about girls as though they are fleshlights that sometimes have handy dandy extra gadgets such as an all-purpose cleaning mechanism and food dispensing function. Sidebar: if you are inclined to now google the word "fleshlight," I encourage you to consult the urban dictionary definition here before doing that, as the google results will probably be NSFW and also NSF those of you whose parents might check your browsing history.
Do parents know how to do that? Sorry for the sidebar, I am just intending to make an explicit point, and now I am feeling uncomfortable about what that explicit point might mean to the target audience of this book. Girls, you are probably badass like Katniss, and you are definitely not a fleshlight. Back to my rant about typical objectification in storytelling: often the girls fleshlights have fancy outer designs because it makes the fleshlights happy to be fancy.
Sometimes they have skeeeeeery castration functions , and other times they work as helpful databases for music or video games or whatever UR into. A lot of times, I will hear people refer to this type of objectification as treating women like they are just a vagina, or a pair of boobs, but I think there is something to the stories that is less human and more sexbot machine than that complaint covers.
So, in all of those links, I have tried to include books written by men and by women because I think that women think of ourselves this way almost as often as men think of us this way. The link from The Ugly Truth , for example, shows both a man and a woman treating women like fleshlights. I have also included both books I love and books I hate because, ultimately, I do think girls adopt this story about themselves, and I also think we can pretty easily identify with a male protagonist and disregard female characters who look nothing like humans.
For example, The Sun Also Rises is one of my favorite books in the whole world, even though it does not contain any women who resonate with my experience of humans. And I don't think it's necessarily bad that I can enjoy stories where women are only fleshlights, as long as I can still be whoever I want to be without a positive role model.
I think it's good to enjoy stories and take what we can get from them, and so I don't regret that I love The Sun Also Rises. In seeing some male reactions to The Hunger Games , I am reminded that most men do not identify with female protagonists the way women have been trained to identify with male protagonists. This seems like a huge disadvantage for men to be in, to me, and if you are a man reading this review, I would ask you to check out your bookshelves.
How many female authors are on your shelves? How many of the books those authors wrote have no central male character? If you have a minute after that, check the shelves of a woman you are friends with and see how many of her books were written by men or have no central female character.
Odds are the results will be pretty different. Katniss is strong and broken, and powerful in her brokenness. Masculinity does not have to mean emotional cowardice. Hopefully, we never think of our primary purpose in life, in the way so many stories think of it, as making penises erect.
Hopefully, we never think of ourselves as gadgets that are super fun for other people. Yes, it is also a poignant critique of reality TV and Western callousness about the catastrophes caused by industrialization in the developing world, but that, too, resonates with me in many ways because of its remarkably feminine voice.
It absolutely makes sense to me that this book is not for everyone because of its violence, but I still think that it is objectively important because it shows a perspective that seems authentically feminine to me — that talks like a girl, not like a sexy, fancy gadget. The Hunger Games is one that does, and it does so in way that is beautiful and important.
I want to die as myself. I don't want them to change me in there. Turn me into some kind of monster that I'm not. I keep wishing I could think of a way to That I'm more than just a piece in their Games. You're the one who wasn't paying attention.
Of course, I loved Peeta! How can "I don't know how to say it exactly. How can I not? He is perfect! But Katniss? She is so strong and bad-ass but she always misunderstands Peeta! It's so obvious that he loves her but she is in denial! She is so stupid!!
And when she realizes his feelings, she just hurt him! Let's start from the beginning! What is Hunger Games? Every year, one boy and one girl between the ages of 12 and 18 were selected from each of the twelve districts as tributes, who train for a week and then are sent into an arena to fight to the death. Only one tribute can win the games.
This competition is showed to television to be seen by all citizens. So, Katniss' little sister, Prim, is selected for the games, but Katniss took her place to save her. I volunteer as tribute! He protected her but I will admit she protected him as well! She risked her life to get the medicine needed to heal his leg. But how can she not see that he is madly in love with her? I loved it when he told her about her singing for the music class, that's when Peeta realized he was in love with her when he saw that the birds were listening like they did for her father.
And right when your song ended, I knew - just like your mother - I was a goner," Peeta says. Very deep. He is her best friend! At the beginning, she said that she never saw him that way and now what? She is confusing me. Please, not love triangle again!! I liked Gale but no! He won the Hunger Games of his time. He is also Katniss' and Peeta's mentor.
It seems at first that he doesn't like Katniss very much but at the Hunger Games he helped her more than he helped Peeta. He always supported her in his way. She was the year-old female tribute from District I really liked that Katniss allied with Rue. They were amazing together.
But Rue died. I understand only one can win our case two but I felt so sad when she died. Not only her though. A lot innocent kids die because of the Capitol. It's not fair. So katniss and Peeta can be allies. But when all the other tributes died it was announced that the rule they said early has been canceled.
I was so angry! They did it on purpose. She is so stupid. He didn't want to fight her and she thought that he could kill her. But it was a trick. Peeta discovers that Katniss was mostly acting during the games about the feelings. He was so heartbroken! My baby! I haven't seen the movie yet! View all 48 comments. Dec 24, Emily May rated it really liked it Shelves: young-adult , dystopia-utopia , It seems weird that I never reviewed The Hunger Games.
I don't know why I didn't when it was a series that completely took over my life for a short while. But recently I've been thinking about posting something in this review space and after just watching the second film which I think was amazing and better than the first , now seems like as good a time as any to talk about why I love Katniss and nearly everything about this series.
I gave this book four stars back in and I'm going to leave that rating as it is because it's an indicator of my thoughts at the time though they slightly differ now - thoughts which were influenced by having just finished the fantastic, horrifying, brutal and unforgettable Battle Royale manga series.
I don't think it was the best time for myself and Katniss to find one another when I had so much beautiful insanity to compare the book to, but it still managed to have such an effect on me that I instantly told every friend and family member to read it. Coming back to this now after having spent the last couple of years being bombarded with dystopian YA, I appreciate what Collins has achieved a whole lot more.
I appreciate the strength of Katniss as a heroine who commands our attention and holds our love whilst still being what some would consider unlikable; I appreciate the balance of beauty and horror that Collins delivers on every page, treating us constantly to both the darkest despair and rays of hope; and I also - amazingly - appreciate the love triangle. Love triangles seem to have chased me and hunted me down with every YA read I picked up over the last two or three years - my dislike for romance instantly becoming doubled by the introduction of yet another boy with beautiful eyes.
But Katniss, Peeta and Gale worked for me. They convinced me, held my interest and made me cry. The love triangle worked because it's outcome wasn't obvious, because we all wondered and hoped and worried.
Because, either way, I was always going to be half happy and half sad. Katniss still remains for me everything that a female protagonist should be. Or a female hero, at least. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan.
Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics , though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. Aristotle has been called "the father of logic", "the father of biology", "the father of political science", "the father of zoology", "the father of embryology", "the father of natural law", "the father of scientific method", "the father of rhetoric", "the father of psychology", "the father of realism", "the father of criticism", "the father of individualism", "the father of teleology", and "the father of meteorology".
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.
Aristotle was born in BC in Stagira , Chalcidice , about 55 km 34 miles east of modern-day Thessaloniki. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus , although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.
After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos , where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon.
While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias , either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".
Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. This period in Athens, between and BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students.
Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre. Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians.
A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. In BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, [22] prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea , at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" [23] [24] [25] — a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates.
He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.
With the Prior Analytics , Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, [27] and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic.
What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism methods of logical argument , [30] Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers.
The order of the books or the teachings from which they are composed is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation , to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms in the Analytics [35] [36] and dialectics in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations.
The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu : the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. He wrote in his Metaphysics a16 :. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.
In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum , or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal katholou in particulars kath' hekaston , things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate.
For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance. Plato argued that all things have a universal form , which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.
Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things.
In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.
With regard to the change kinesis and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption b—a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality dynamis and actuality entelecheia in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else.
For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially dynamei a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' poiein or 'be acted upon' paschein , which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight innate — being acted upon , while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning exercise — acting.
Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end telos is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.
For that for the sake of which to hou heneka a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality.
With this definition of the particular substance i. Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being matter and the actual one form are one and the same.
Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms or ideas and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.
Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science dianoia is either practical, poetical or theoretical" Metaphysics b His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.
In his On Generation and Corruption , Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles , Earth , Water , Air , and Fire , to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether , the divine substance of the heavenly spheres , stars and planets. Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics b10 , and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens a In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, [46] [F] since Aristotle does not address friction.
Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, [H] while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up like fire, as is observed or down like earth towards their natural resting places. Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" [47] that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, [50] but other authors reject this.
Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water ; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition.
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus in the Middle Ages and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones whether friction is ignored, or not [49] , and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium. Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting e.
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.
Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems , book The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image. According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity.
Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things , "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.
In astronomy , Aristotle refuted Democritus 's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations.
He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early — and correctly — that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff "I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, [63] and biology forms a large part of his writings.
He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish , electric ray , and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus.
His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron , which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet.
For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed.
In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods terrestrial placental mammals that he studied.
Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with adult body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young usually just one per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period , and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier.
As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.
Aristotle distinguished about species of animals , [84] [85] arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the scala naturae , with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs.
Animals came above plants , and these in turn were above minerals. Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing mammals , and the egg-laying birds , reptiles , fish.
Those without blood were insects, crustacea non-shelled — cephalopods, and shelled and the hard-shelled molluscs bivalves and gastropods. He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally.
The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous intellect and logos reason. For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being.
Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e. In On the Soul , Aristotle famously criticizes Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response to Plato's. The first criticism is against Plato's view of the soul in the Timaeus that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies. According to Aristotle in On the Soul , memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.
Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian ' common sense ' , and thinking.
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents.
Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience.
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences.
To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity , described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind.
A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled. Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation.
However, the senses are able to work during sleep, [] albeit differently, [] unless they are weary. Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.
Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs.
He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream.
For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences. Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics , politics , economics , and rhetoric. Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function ergon of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle identified such an optimum activity the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency [5] of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia , generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being".
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom phronesis and their intellect nous can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics.
Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".
Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together.
In Protrepticus , the character 'Aristotle' states: []. For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control , it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity.
Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods. As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather critical concerning democracy and, following the outline of certain ideas from Plato's Statesman , he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state:.
It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy.
To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter—one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see. Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought , especially to thought in the Middle Ages.
His response to criticisms of private property , in Lionel Robbins 's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. In Politics , Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.
Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement.
Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it". Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos an appeal to the speaker's character , pathos an appeal to the audience's emotion , and logos an appeal to logical reasoning.
Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry , tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry , painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis "imitation" , each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average.
Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation — through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books — one on comedy and one on tragedy — only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions.
Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element.
The biological differences are a result of the fact that the female body is well-suited for reproduction, which changes her body temperature, which in turn makes her, in Aristotle's view, incapable of participating in political life.
More than years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee , "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".
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